Faisal- Organisational Innovation And Change(OIC) Essay

Faisal- Organisational Innovation And Change(OIC) - Essay Example As a Supply Chain provider across many producers and countries, FSL provides the convenience of a one-stop shop for customers through a Total Value-Added Package: from product design and development, through raw material and factory sourcing, production planning and management, quality assurance and export documentation to shipping consolidation. With an annual turnover of around ? 25 Million, FSL employs about 30 people worldwide. Over the course of 3 years, FSL has developed from a Malaysian export trader into a multinational trading company (Annual Report, 2009). 1.2 FSL MISSION The company has a vision to be one of the world leaders in global trading. Its vision is: " To be the leader in the local and global markets by providing the best quality of products and services through strong emphasis on teamwork, collaboration, customer service, total commitment, trust, and mutual benefits" (FSL Company Profile, 2007) . The company’s business objectives are the following, with cu stomer focus as its priority: As a one-stop-shop service The company is comprised of small, dedicated teams of product specialists who focus on the needs of particular customers and organize for them. It provides the convenience of a one-stop shop from product development, through production management, to customs clearance and delivery when required. A coordinated global network FSL maintains a network of sourcing offices in 40 countries that work together to find the best sources for different components, fueling a constant process of adaptation. It has a policy of not owning any production facilities that keeps it flexible to search for quality-conscious, cost-effective producers who can consistently deliver against deadlines. Quick response FSL has been a pioneer in quick response manufacturing out of Asia since 2002. In order to move even closer to their customers, FSL is currently concentrating on the extension of its sourcing network in markets like the China ,Mediterranean, Eastern Europe and Central and South America. Social Responsibility FSL understands that its customers today face an increasingly discerning group of consumers who are not only looking for quality and value, but are also concerned about how the goods are made. Compliance is a key element for all the steps of the company’s supply chain. Through systematic inspection, audit and vendor education we help customers enforce their high standards throughout the factory base. 1.3 Business Operation FSL’s core business operation is trading. It has been trading ever since it has started its business. It trades its business by importing goods ordered by its customers especially Malaysians, who want the products that are manufactured in China, Thailand, Vietnam, etc. Most of FSL customers are importing their products from China and FSL has a very good network of contacts and connections among China’s best manufacturers and wholesalers. The company caters to both local and

Organizational Behavior Essay Example for Free

Organizational Behavior Essay The paper would discuss about a case study of a departmental store called, Macy’s, where the problem statement would be elaborated, comprehensive analysis would be done regarding the problems and circumstances, and finally recommendations would be given as a solution which would be followed by a conclusion. So let’s have a quick overview of what the case study talks about. Macy’s, which is a departmental store organization, has recently decided to reshape the organizational structure where more emphasis would be laid on the local districts and stores as compared to the central stores. Moreover, they would be given more autonomy and authority to operate, conduct research, order merchandise, and market those products in a suitable manner depending on the type of the target market, social norms, and customers’ needs. This strategy is designed in order to keep the customers close to the business, understand what actually they want, how they want, and at what prices they want; therefore, doing every such thing in order to fulfill their needs and wants and keeping them satisfied. Macy’s has around 20 districts that operate in different regions, and the managers or staff working there would now be handling with less stores than previously. This would be done to make them focused on the areas where they are working, penetrate in there, grab the market share, and bring in more profits. Not only this, Macy’s several retail outlets were named differently, which all are rebranded and named as Macy’s. This is all done because previous mergers and expansion of the business did not provide lucrative results due to the improper formulation and implementation of the strategies. Problem Statement The problem in reshaping the organizational structure is that many of the employees, around 2000, would be laid off in just a blink of an eye, which would of course create some retaliation on part of the employees and unions. Another problem would be the decision-making, as in, who should be appointed as a manager or supervisor of a given district so that he enjoys his autonomy and own decisions. It would create conflicts among the employees because everyone would be willing to be a manager or supervisor. Read more:Â  Essay on Organizational Behavior Furthermore, the restructuring would take time and most importantly, the costs of operating separately would increase because each store in a different district would be ordering different types of products with different features and variants. Not only this, marketers would have to conduct research extensively to find out the consumer’s needs, wants, preferences, and purchasing power. Case Study Analysis Now let’s highlight each problem and analyze it in great detail. Starting from the first problem where 2000 thousand employees would be laid off, it would not be pointless to say that the employees would retaliate over the uncertainty of their jobs as in, whom the company would be layoff and why. This would instigate a sense of demotivation, dejection, and a feeling among the employees where they would no longer see them as part of the organization; therefore, the performance would drastically decline before the implementation of the new plan – reshaping the organizational structure. Instead of moving on forward and implement the plan, the company would entangle itself in another problem and hence would waste the time in dealing with it. Talking about the second problem, of course the employees would be glad that finally they would get a chance to think, plan, and implement their own ideas and strategies since they would be held responsible for their separate stores and given autonomy. But on the other hand, the big question mark that would be lying in the minds of the employees would be to whom the autonomy would be given be given and why, because almost every one of them would love to have such autonomy. Conflicts after conflicts would occur because once the employees are given their charge and autonomy, each of them would face confrontations from those who were neglected and not selected as a manger. This would create a ripple effect in the whole process and would eventually undermine the organizational performance. Not only this, the demands of each of those managers or supervisors regarding the resources and funds would be different, since each of them would want to spend as much money and resources as required in order to get fruitful results. This of course, would lead to the lavish spending and waste of resources that might lead to the incurring of loss for the company due to the increase of unnecessary costs. The reshaping of any organization’s structure is not an easy task; in fact, it takes time and resources to take it to the next level. Currently Macy’s has a tall or mechanistic structure, where there lies several hierarchies and the power or autonomy is central; and the new strategy is designed to eliminate some hierarchical levels and distribute the powers to separate districts in order to have an organic or flat structure (Robbins Judge, 2007). The problem related to this restructuring would be manifold because the company would have to be ready to face the ever-increasing costs of operating separately and customizing the product lines. First of all, the costs related to the payrolls would increase as the responsibility of the employees would increase. Not only this, the managers would have to be trained for acquiring the skills to handle the whole district and the stores, so this would require considerable amount of investment too. When it comes to gathering the information about the locality to know the market trends, customers’ needs and wants, in order to sell customized products; therefore, the managers would have to be provided with sufficient funds and resources to conduct market research surveys through several tools including questionnaires, focus groups, in-depth interviews, and informal interviews (Zikmund, 2006). Increased costs would not stop here, in fact the tailoring of products with respect to their types, sizes, colors, and features would require the manufacturer and supplier costs to increase. In addition to these problems, there is no surety that the new strategies would work the way they are expected to and give favorable outcomes. If they get flop, the result would be quite disastrous for the company and all of its district stores. Till now we discussed the problems that are there and might arise when the new plan would be implemented; now let’s shed some light over the recommendations for overcoming these problems. Recommendations Macy’s departmental store management team should consider the dark sides of its plan and prepare contingency plans that can be implemented to overcome the loss. First of all, in order to deal with the retaliation problem from the side of employees due to layoff, Macy’s should introduce a plan where those employees who are to be laid off, would be informed well before the time and would be offered three month salaries in advance so that they do no face any problem until they stay unemployed. This would somewhat cool them down and would not force them to retaliate. As far as the second problem is concerned, Macy’s should consider appointing the senior employees as managers of separate district and local stores, who are there at Macy’s for many years and have considerable experience. Not only this, another strategy that should be introduced and implemented throughout the Macy’s stores chain is the compensation plan called Performance-based compensation, where the employees who perform well and have better productivity level are rewarded by monetary rewards or promotion to be a manager or supervisor. This will create the need and sense of responsibility among the employees to reduce unnecessary costs, improve productivity in terms of sales, and gain overall efficiency; therefore, the issue of wastage of resources would automatically diminish. Furthermore, the conflicts would be eliminated since all the employees would be working diligently so that he or she can be promoted and rewarded more. Since Macy’s departmental organization has an extensive chain of stores, so implementing such a big change of organizational restructuring would not be easy and would require the services of specialists and consultants. Therefore, Macy’s must hire some change agents and consultants who would then study each and every aspect of the organization, the needs and requirements, and would form an effective plan for bringing on the change. They usually adopt the method including three major steps – freezing, changing, and refreezing (Daft, 1997). The whole process of change would go systematically and the chances of occurring of blunders would be very minimal, since these change agents are master in their jobs. Conclusion After analyzing the whole case study, we found out several problems that the company might face when the new plan of organizational restructuring takes place. Those problems include retaliation from the side of employees due to layoff, conflicts among the employees over getting more autonomy and job status, and swelling costs due to the separate demands and needs of the stores operating under distinct cultural and social settings. Then we highlighted some of the recommendations that if implemented, can overcome these issues effectively. Employees must be told in advance about their being layoff and granted with three months of advance salaries. Secondly, Macy’s should appoint experienced and senior employees as the mangers and supervisors of the chain stores; moreover, performance-based compensation plan must be implemented. And finally, the services of change agents and consultants should be taken for implementing the new plan of restructuring, who would implement it in a systematic way by first freezing the company, changing it, and then refreezing it. Consequently, the task of restructuring is a hectic and difficult one that requires ample amount of time, but it is not impossible and can be made to meet its end meet by devising effective strategies to carry on with it. References Daft. R. L. (1997). Management. Fourth Edition. U. S. A. The Dryden Press Robbins. S. P, and Judge. T. A. 2007. Organizational Behavior. India. Dorling Kindersley Pvt. Ltd. Zikmund. W. G. (2003). Business Research Methods. Seventh edition. Singapore. Thomson Asia pte. Ltd.

Supply Demand And The Market For Drugs Economics Essay

Supply Demand And The Market For Drugs Economics Essay Supply-side initiatives are actions meant to cut or reduce the supply by preventing drugs from entering the country. A supply reduction, unless it totally eliminates the flow of drugs into the market, works by raising price so that consumption is cut. A decrease in supply, without a change in demand, will result in a new market equilibrium where the market price is higher , but the quantity of drugs bought and sold is lower. However, the critical factor that determines the magnitude of the changes in price and quantity is the elasticity of demand. Two concerns have emerged with regard to drug supply restriction in the context of an price-inelastic demand. First, it has been observed that lower-income addicts who cannot substitute away from the drug after the price increase tend to resort to minor crimes to support their habit. Second, addicts who have to reduce purchases tend to adopt the faster, but riskier, route of inducing euphoria by injecting the drug. A policy-maker must be aware of these potential consequences. Clearly, therefore, if both supply-side and demand-side initiatives are costless, well conceived demand reduction efforts (i.e., schemes to prevent drug abuse by the young through prevention, education, rehabilitation of existing drug users) promise an unambiguously positive outcome relative to effective supply restrictions where there may be an offsetting expenditure effect arising out of the price increase (i.e, when the demand for drugs is inelastic, 0 > ÃŽÂ µ > -1, D2: , or perfectly elastic, ÃŽÂ µ=0, D1: y=1000). As shown in panel (a) in Figure 1, a vertical demand curve is perfectly inelastic at every price. If the price goes up, the quantity demanded is unchanged (), so the elasticity of demand must be zero: ( A demand curve is vertical for essential goods goods that people feel they must have and will pay anything to get. In our case (i.e., drug addicts), the demand curve for drugs could be vertical at a days dose, Q*=1000. More realistically, an individual drug addict may have a demand curve (panel (b), Figure 1) that is perfectly inelastic only at prices below p*, the maximum price he can afford to pay. Because he cannot afford to pay more than p*, he buys nothing at higher prices. As a result, his demand curve is perfectly elastic up to y* doses at a price of p*. In Figure 2, the demand for drugs is shown by the downward-sloping demand curve (D2) to reflect the negative relationship between price and the quantity demanded. It has been drawn with a steep slope because it is commonly held that addiction suggests price inelasticity in the demand for drugs, If true, it implies that an increase in price will be accompanied by a less-than-proportionate decrease in the quantity demanded. The supply curve (S), on the other hand, mirrors the behaviour of drug suppliers. It is drawn with a positive slope since higher prices will attract larger quantities from suppliers and vice versa. Moreover, the value of the elasticity coefficient (È  >1) suggests that the supply is price elastic; small increases in the price of drugs are thought to draw a more-than proportionate increase in the quantity supplied. As shown in both Figure 1 (panel a) and Figure 2, the initial equilibrium is represented by point e, where price is established at p* and the quantity transacted is y*. For a supply reduction shown by S, the demand reduction must be at least as large as that represented by D2 and D1 in order for price to remain at its original level of p*. This is to ensure that the quantity transacted falls (to y*) without any increase in price. If supply reduction keeps the price high enough (at p*) and long enough to prevent a new generation from falling victim to the habit, demand may fall in the long run and succeed in lowering consumption and drug-related harms. Moreover, the twin benefits of a lower price and lower quantity transacted will only be obtained if demand reduction exceeds supply reduction, as illustrated by point f. Even so, the continued presence of drug sales and use, although at a lower scale, suggests that a drug-free society has not been achieved. However, the evidence everywh ere suggests that this goal remains a dream (Wood et al. 2009). In sum, the net benefit from attempting a pure supply reduction of drugs remains ambiguous if demand is price-inelastic (in our case, D1: y=1000 and D2: ). Thus, by launching simultaneous initiatives on both the supply and demand sides might guarantee an unambiguously positive net result, that is reduce the consumption of drugs. G2: A reduction in the drug-induced criminality à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ Pure Demand-side initiative Demand-side initiatives attempt to reduce the demand for drugs at all prevailing prices or, in purely graphically terms, shift the entire demand curve to the left of its original position. Schemes to prevent drug abuse by the young through prevention, education, rehabilitation of existing drug users, minimisation of relapses among rehabilitated users and controlled and supervised substitution therapy, meant to deprive users away from harmful drugs, constitute some of the commonly used demand reducing measures. As depicted in both Figure 3 and Figure 4 above, starting from the initial equilibrium (e), I assume supply remains unchanged. A successful demand reduction will shift the demand curve leftwards (D2), causing it to intersect with the given supply curve at a lower price (p*). The new lower demand curve, D2, intersects with the original supply curve (S), resulting in a lower price (p*) and a lower quantity bought and sold (y*). The total expenditure on drugs is reduced as well, providing less incentives for drug-induced criminality or drug substitutions. The elasticity of supply now determines the relative magnitude of the movement in price and quantity. The more elastic (inelastic) the supply, the smaller (larger) the decline in price and the larger (smaller) the decline in consumption (i.e, drug-induced criminality) induced by a given demand reduction. Nevertheless, both variables move in the same direction. G3: A reduction of the emergence of organized crime connected with the (illegal) sale of drugs à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢Demand-side and/or Supply-side initiatives In the case of an inelastic demand and a elastic supply, the options for achieving a drug-free society are illustrated in Figure 5 above. Point e, as before, represents the equilibrium price and quantity before the anti-drug campaign. A purely demand-reduction effort to reduce drug trade (and consumption) to zero requires a big reduction in demand in order to shift the demand leftward to a point like f, where the lower demand curve (D2) intersects with the existing supply curve (S) and yields a street price (p*) that is so low that it is no longer profitable to supply drugs at all. In other words, the drug trade is wiped out due to insufficient demand. Alternatively, a purely supply reduction initiative to eradicate both the drug trade and consumption requires a substantial supply shift leftwards to a point like g, which yields a price so high (p*) as to make the drugs beyond the reach of buyers. Finally, a simultaneous shift leftward of both the demand and supply curves (arising from very effective supply and demand reduction initiatives) could, theoretically, see the reduction of the drug trade and consumption (and respectively a reduction of the emergence of organized crime connected with the (illegal) sale of drugs) at a price level that lies between the two extreme limits of p* and p*. Such a situation is shown by point h, where the highest price offered by the drug user (p*) is just below the threshold price (p*) considered profitable by the supplier. Moreover, the three options from above could be applied as well in the case of a perfectly inelastic demand in order to reduce the drug trade (and consumption) and respectively, to reduce the emergence of organized crime connected with the illegal sale of drugs. However, the drug-free society cannot be achieved (Figure 6). To summarise, price elasticities of demand and supply play a key role in determining the magnitudes of change in price and quantity induced by supply-side and demand-side initiatives. As noted, a pure supply reduction lowers consumption but increases price and, unless demand is very price-elastic, the reduction in consumption will be small but the total expenditure on drugs will increase considerably. On the other hand, a pure demand reduction lowers both price and quantity, with supply elasticity determining the relative size of the decline in both variables (additionally, consumption and expenditures on consumption will also be lower relative to the original level). In addition, whether an extreme objective of taking both demand-side and supply side initiatives is worth pursuing will depend upon how much it costs society to do so. If large shifts in demand and supply can be achieved at relatively low cost, a drug-free society is indeed a noble goal. b) The interpretations given to G1, G2 and G3 above looked at supply and demand shifts, ignoring costs. In deciding on an optimal policy, defined as one that maximises social welfare, costs become very important and must be weighed against the expected benefits. To be more precise, social costs must be weighed against the social benefits expected from a chosen policy option. P1: Increased punishment and/or increased probability of getting caught for drug-pushers To the extent that drug consumption transmits a negative externality, the social marginal benefit (SMB) from drug use must lie below the private marginal benefit (PMB), as reflected by market demand curve (D2, and D1 respectively) in Figure 7 and Figure 8 below. Assuming no externalities on the supply side, the market supply curve (S) reflects the cost of producing and distributing drugs. In a market without restrictions on drug supply or demand, the level of drug consumption (y*) will exceed the socially optimum level (y*). Enforcement on the supply side (i.e., increased punishment and/or increased probability of getting caught for drug-pushers) will reduce the market supply (shift the curve leftwards to SE), raise the price to p* and reduce drug consumption to the socially optimal level of y*. The after-enforcement supply curve will now incorporate the additional costs incurred by illegal suppliers to avoid detection and punishment (area abcd in Figure 7 and Figure 8). If demand is inelastic (D2 in Figure 7), the reduction in drug consumption will be small and the gain in social welfare from avoiding the negative externality associated with drug use will also be small. This gain is shown by the shaded area marked def (Figure 7). It is clear that these additional costs (area abcd) exceed the additional gain from reducing consumption (area def). However, by reducing consumption to y* via supply enforcement, society avoids the net loss shown by the def area. If demand is perfectly inelastic (D1 in Figure 8), despite the reduced consumption induced by the higher price (from p* to p*; since an individual drug addict cannot afford to pay more than p*, he buys nothing at higher prices, p*) due to a supply enforcement, total expenditure on consuming drugs will increase (area abce). This increased spending by persistent users translates directly into higher revenues for drug suppliers who remain in business. Hence, if the demand is inelastic (D2), or perfectly inelastic (D1), the total spending on drug consumption and the total resources committed to supplying drugs will increase. Thus, supply reduction under these circumstances has the unintended effect of drawing more of societys resources into an activity (illegal sale of drugs) that is being discouraged. Moreover, the impact of supply enforcement is also influenced by the price elasticity of supply; in general, the lower (higher) the supply elasticity, the smaller (larger) the effect of a given increase in enforcement in raising price and lowering consumption. Thus, the lower (higher) the price elasticity of supply, the greater (smaller) the enforcement costs and the likelihood of reducing the net social gain. In sum, if the demand for drugs is inelastic (D2) or perfectly inelastic (D1), supply enforcement may not be an efficient method of achieving the optimum level of consumption. This is because the cost of additional resources committed by the society (i.e., the additional expenditures by drug dealers plus the costs of supply enforcement) towards achieving this end will far exceed the benefits to the society. P2: Legalize the sale of drugs The effect of a supply restriction can be reproduced with a clear improvement in welfare by legalizing drug production and imposing an excise tax to reduce consumption to the optimal level. This is illustrated in both Figure 9 and Figure 10 below. In the case of inelastic demand, (D2 in Figure 9), assuming drug supply is legalized, the pre-intervention price and consumption are shown, as before, by p* and y*, respectively. Consumption can be reduced to the socially optimal level, y*, by imposing an excise tax equal to cd per unit of output. This raises the cost of production and the after-tax supply curve is indicated by ST . The market price of drugs increases to p*, consumption falls to y* and, as in the case of supply enforcement, net social losses (equivalent to def) are avoided. However, in contrast to supply enforcement, the tax extracts resources from the drug industry equal to the value of abcd. The effects of this reduction in resources are borne by both consumers and producers: the former, via a higher price and lower consumption rate, and the latter, by way of lower price and output. The resources are transferred to the government and will (hopefully) fund activities with a higher net social value. Of course, the suppliers and consumers do not necessarily bear the tax burden equally. The more inelastic the demand, the greater is the share of tax borne by the consumers. Similarly, the more inelastic the supply, the greater is the tax share borne by the suppliers. This point is better appreciated by looking at the equivalent estimate of the revenue collected, shown by the area marked p*cdp*. While the tax raises the consumer price from p* to p*, it lowers the unit price received by suppliers from p* to p*. Thus, in this example of inelastic demand, consumers pay a bigger share of the tax (area p*cdp*), relative to suppliers (area p*gdp*). In case of perfectly inelastic demand (D1 in Figure 10), Consumption can be reduced to the socially optimal level, y*, by imposing an excise tax equal to ce per unit of output. This raises the cost of production and the after-tax supply curve is indicated by ST . The market price of drugs increases to p* and consumption falls to y*. However, in contrast to supply enforcement, the tax extracts resources from the drug industry equal to the value of abce. The effects of this reduction in resources are borne by both consumers and producers: the former, via a higher price and lower consumption rate, and the latter, by way of lower price and output. Of course, the suppliers and consumers do not necessarily bear the tax burden equally. This point is better appreciated by looking at the equivalent estimate of the revenue collected, shown by the area marked p*cep*. While the tax raises the consumer price from p* to p*, it maintains the unit price received by suppliers at p*. Thus, in this exa mple of inelastic demand, consumers pay a bigger share of the tax (area p*cdp*), relative to suppliers (area dce). The net increase in welfare under the legalise-and-tax approach is assured because the tax, in effect, internalises the negative externality associated with drug consumption. Furthermore, apart from generating tax revenue, the resources necessary to discourage illegal production and control tax avoiders will be far smaller than the enforcement costs under a regime where all production is illegal. The authorities only have to raise the cost of illegal production above the cost of legal production to discourage the former. Despite the theoretical elegance of this approach, governments hesitate to adopt it because it is seen as morally wrong to legalise drug use, even if the longer-term objective is to restrain consumption more effectively. P3: Distribute drugs for free If the government were to distribute the drugs free (p*=0), the quantity would be y*=1000 when demand is perfectly inelastic (D1), and y*=2000 when the demand is relatively inelastic (D2). As depicted in both Figure 11 and Figure 12 below, starting from the initial equilibrium (e), I assume supply remains unchanged. In Figure 12, a successful demand reduction would be possible only in the case of perfectly inelastic demand curve, (from D1 to D1), causing it to intersect with the given supply curve at a lower price (p*). The new lower demand curve, D2, intersects with the original supply curve (S), resulting in a lower price (p*) and a lower quantity bought and sold (y*). The total expenditure on drugs is reduced as well, providing less incentives for drug-induced criminality or drug substitutions. However, the drug trade (and consumption) could not be reduced to 0. Furthermore, in Figure 11, in the case of inelastic demand (D2), the consumption is more likely to increase than to decrease. The implementation of a policy such as distributing drugs for free, will increase the quantity from y* (equilibrium quantity) to y*=2000 and reduce price from p* (equilibrium price) to p*=0. P4: Decrease the demand for drugs As discussed earlier in the paper regarding policy P1, the social marginal benefit (SMB) from drug use must lie below the private marginal benefit (PMB), as reflected by market demand curve (D2, and D1 respectively) in Figure 13 and Figure 14 above. Assuming no externalities on the supply side, the market supply curve (S) reflects the cost of producing and distributing drugs. In a market without restrictions on drug supply or demand, the level of drug consumption (y*) will exceed the socially optimum level (y*). In both Figure 12 (and Figure 13), persuasion efforts to reduce the demand for drugs are unaffected by the price elasticity of demand. Successful persuasion will result in the original demand curve, D2 (and D1) declining to D0. This will raise the overall social welfare, provided the costs of such efforts are not excessively large and if persuasion itself does not generate a large negative social value. As to sum up, the analysis of the optimal policy-instruments to be implemented on the market for drugs supports the conclusions of the earlier interpretations (G1 to G3): when the impact of a policy on welfare is considered explicitly, demand reduction delivers a clear improvement in outcome whereas supply reduction requires special conditions to do so. c) Goals G1: Reduction in the consumption of drugs G2: A reduction in the drug-induced criminality G3: A reduction of the emergence of organized crime connected with the (illegal) sale of drugs Policy-instruments P1: Increased punishment and/or increased probability of getting caught for drug-pushers D1, S D2, S D1, S D2, S D1, S D2, S By launching simultaneous initiatives on both the supply and demand sides might guarantee an unambiguously positive net result, that is reduce the consumption of drugs. If the demand for drugs is inelastic or perfectly inelastic, supply enforcement may not be an efficient method of achieving the optimum level of consumption. Well conceived demand reduction efforts promise an unambiguously positive outcome (i.e., less incentives for drug-induced criminality) relative to effective supply restrictions where there may be an offsetting expenditure effect arising out of the price increase. A simultaneous shift leftward of both the demand and supply curves (arising from very effective supply and demand reduction initiatives) could, theoretically, see a reduction of both the drug trade and the organized crime related with the (illegal) sale of drugs). However, a drug-free society cannot be achieved. A simultaneous shift leftward of both the demand and supply curves (arising from very effective supply and demand reduction initiatives) could, theoretically, eradicate the drug trade, and respectively , the organized crime connected with the (illegal) sale of drugs), thus achieving a drug-free society. Goals G1: Reduction in the consumption of drugs G2: A reduction in the drug-induced criminality G3: A reduction of the emergence of organized crime connected with the (illegal) sale of drugs Policy-instrument P2: Legalize the sale of drugs D1, S D2, S D1, S D2, S D1, S D2, S Governments hesitate to adopt this policy because it is seen as morally wrong to legalise drug use, even if the longer-term objective is to restrain consumption more effectively. To the extent that legalizing drugs would make them cheaper, it would create many new addicts and the incidence of drug-induced crime would increase. Thus, legalizing drugs not only does not decrease criminal behaviour; almost certainly, it would spur its increase. If there are any regulations or taxes of (for example, an excise tax)placed upon the legalized drugs, the emergence of organized crime, most certainly, will not be reduced. Governments hesitate to adopt this policy because it is seen as morally wrong to legalise drug use, even if the longer-term objective is to restrain consumption more effectively. Goals G1: Reduction in the consumption of drugs G2: A reduction in the drug-induced criminality G3: A reduction of the emergence of organized crime connected with the (illegal) sale of drugs Policy-instruments P3: Distribute drugs for free D1, S D2, S D1, S D2, S D1, S D2, S A successful demand reduction would be possible only in the case of perfectly inelastic demand curve, causing the new lower demand curve to intersect with the given supply curve at a lower price and a lower quantity bought and sold. Thus, the consumption is expected to decrease. In the case of inelastic demand, the consumption is more likely to increase than to decrease. A successful demand reduction would be possible only in the case of perfectly inelastic demand curve, causing the new lower demand curve to intersect with the given supply curve at a lower price and a lower quantity bought and sold. Thus, the total expenditure on drugs is reduced as well, providing less incentives for drug-induced criminality or drug substitutions. If one sees drug-induced criminality as criminality under the influence of drugs, then free distribution would increase drug-related criminality. Since drugs are distributed for free (p=0), the emergence of organized crime connected with the illegal sale of drugs is expected to be eradicated. Goals G1: Reduction in the consumption of drugs G2: A reduction in the drug-induced criminality G3: A reduction of the emergence of organized crime connected with the (illegal) sale of drugs Policy-instruments P4: Decrease the demand for drugs D1, S D2, S D1, S D2, S D1, S D2, S Persuasion efforts to reduce the demand for drugs are unaffected by the price elasticity of demand. Successful persuasion will result in the original demand curve to decline. Thus, the consumption of drugs is reduced. However, the drug consumption cannot be reduced to 0. Persuasion efforts to reduce the demand for drugs are unaffected by the price elasticity of demand. Successful persuasion will result in the original demand curve to decline causing a reduction in drug-induced criminality Persuasion efforts to reduce the demand for drugs are unaffected by the price elasticity of demand. Successful persuasion will result in the original demand curve to decline, causing a lower demand curve that intersects with the existing supply curve and yields a street price that is so low that it is no longer profitable to supply drugs. In other words, the organized crime related to the illegal sale of drugs is reduced (if not wiped out) due to insufficient demand.

Is Caffeine Addictive? Essay -- Biology Essays Research Papers

Is Caffeine Addictive? As exams approach, students everywhere reach for their coffee mugs, their Vivarine and No-Doz. Legions of wide-eyed and shaky young people stay up late into the night, printing out final papers and cramming a year worth of information into their over-burned minds. Falling asleep over books is not acceptable at this time of year. But this is not a new thing; many students have a late-night lifestyle supported by caffeine, getting an average of 5 hours of sleep a night. These young people are a part of the nearly 80% of Americans who depend on caffeine (1). They use it to stay awake when their bodies tell them they need to sleep. Many people use it simply to feel more awake or simply because they like the taste of coffee, sodas or teas which contain the drug. For those who love coffee, the taste is often cited as the reason for the "addiction" and the use of that word does not imply anything like a drug addiction. However, try to take away someone's coffee abruptly and chances are they will experience withdrawal symptoms (2). The body develops a dependence on caffeine which is very obvious; stop drinking coffee for a day after being a regular drinker and get a headache, then drink coffee and it goes away. Some call this an addiction, coining terms such as "caffeinisme" and "caffeine withdrawal syndrome" (4), and classify caffeine as a mind-altering drug (3) (5) (6) (7). Many others protect caffeine, saying it does not compare to a true drug addiction and some even claim it has benefits-that it not only increases alertness but has other healthful properties (2) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13). It is very difficult to find an objective article on the effects of caffeine, for while the information is often c... ...xhaustion. There is great need for more research regarding the properties of caffeine. There is too much contradictory information and studies are not conclusive. A huge number of people around the world consume enough caffeine to be diagnosed as dependent who have not been reassured that it is safe. Nor have they been given a good enough reason to stop their consumption or cut down to safer levels of caffeine intake. It would take a lot of negative findings to dissuade people from using the drug, but a better understanding on all properties could also find more uses for caffeine and could reassure those who are doubtful of the safety of caffeine consumption. Internet Sources: http://www.usa-gymnastics.org/publications/usa-gymnastics/1996/4/body-balance.html http://www.healthy.net/scr/article.asp?ID=800 http://www.healthy.net/scr/article.asp?ID=2046

Gender issues in America today Essay

Women of the whole world face problems on their way to have equal rights with men. These problems differ and depend on the laws of the country they live in. By the last 40 years in the US, thanks to the activity of women’s rights movement, women succeed in the struggle for equal rights, but till the complete equality with men in the aspects of professional practice, salary and policy, there are far more left to gain. American women who want to raise their children in the world with more equality try to change the situation and find some people who have the same position on the issue among representatives of different political parties and members of nongovernmental organizations. When in 1960 drugs which help to control the birthrate came into existence it became possible for women to choose their own life journey. Marriage, children and housekeeping stopped to be the only opportunity. Harmless and more trusting contraception provided women with possibility to appreciate the alternative to all their traditional roles in society. At the same time in the 60s the movement for civil rights, demanding to put an end to racial discrimination and the act about civil rights of the year 1964 undermined the gender discrimination too. This is why the verdure of women’s movement in 70s was not just a case of fortune. Representatives of women’s movement were demanding equal professional opportunities and law defense for all American women. As a result in 60s – 80s the Congress constituted several laws oriented to protect women’s rights. Among them injunction of the Supreme Court of 1965 which opened for women the access to professions earlier considered as men’s ones, the injunction of the Supreme Court of 1971 which forbid the employers to deny women with preschool children, and a law published in 1970 which prohibit gender discrimination in all educational programs financed by government. By the end of 70s among labor force were more women than ever before in peace history (during the Second World War a lot of women went to work, when their men were on battlefields but after 1945 they returned to household chores). But as women were making progress in the career their possibilities were gradually restricted. A term â€Å"glass ceiling† describe the invisible barrier which faces a lot of women on their carrier ladder whilst their men-colleagues with the same professional skills and experience avoid all these problems. In the 80s in the US were accepted several laws oriented to ease the affect of â€Å"glass ceiling† so, for example, in 1984 the injunction of the Supreme Court prohibited to oppose to women’s joining clubs. Earlier these clubs gave to men the capacity of intercommunication for the purpose of further career development. In the same year the Supreme Court resolved that legal services have no right to restrain the career development of their employees in virtue of gender. However the problem of â€Å"glass ceiling† is still exist in the US. In 2002 two members of the House of Representatives – a man and a woman – submitted a report on the problem. The report dwells upon the fact that still too few women occupy administrative positions almost in all spheres. In the report it was also mentioned that the wage gap now is 80 cent earned by woman for every dollar earned by man. â€Å"The wage gap is a statistical indicator often used as an index of the status of women’s earnings relative to men’s. It is also used to compare the earnings of other races and ethnicities to those of white males, a group generally not subject to race- or sex-based discrimination. The wage gap is expressed as a percentage (e. g. , in 2005, women earned 77% as much as men) and is calculated by dividing the median annual earnings for women by the median annual earnings for men. The Equal Pay Act was signed in 1963, making it illegal for employers to pay unequal wages to men and women who hold the same job and do the same work. At the time of the EPA’s passage, women earned just 58 cents for every dollar earned by men. By 2005, that rate had only increased to 77 cents, an improvement of less than half a penny a year. Minority women fare the worst. African-American women earn just 69 cents to every dollar earned by white men, and for Hispanic women that figure drops to merely 59 cents per dollar. The wage gap between women and men cuts across a wide spectrum of occupations. The Bureau of Labor Statistics reported that in 2005 female physicians and surgeons earned 60. 9% of the median weekly wages of male physicians, and women in sales occupations earned just 63. 4% of men’s wages in equivalent positions. If working women earned the same as men (those who work the same number of hours; have the same education, age, and union status; and live in the same region of the country), their annual family incomes would rise by $4,000 and poverty rates would be cut in half. † It is also interesting to follow up how the wage gap was changing through years : â„â€" Year Percent â„â€" Year Percent â„â€" Year Percent 1 1951 63. 9 20 1970 59. 4 38 1988 66. 0 2 1952 63. 9 21 1971 59. 5 39 1989 68. 7 3 1953 63. 9 22 1972 57. 9 40 1990 71. 6 4 1954 63. 9 23 1973 56. 6 41 1991 69. 9 5 1955 63. 9 24 1974 58. 8 42 1992 70. 8 6 1956 63. 3 25 1975 58. 8 43 1993 71. 5 7 1957 63. 8 26 1976 60. 2 44 1994 72. 0 8 1958 63. 0 27 1977 58. 9 45 1995 71. 4% 9 1959 61. 3 28 1978 59. 4 46 1996 73. 8 10 1960 60. 7 29 1979 59. 7 47 1997 74. 2 11 1961 59. 2 30 1980 60. 2 48 1998 73. 2 12 1962 59. 3 31 1981 59. 2 49 1999 72. 2 13 1963 58. 9 32 1982 61. 7 50 2000 73. 3 14 1964 59. 1 33 1983 63. 6 51 2001 76. 3 15 1965 59. 9 34 1984 63. 7 52 2002 76. 6 16 1966 57. 6 35 1985 64. 6 53 2003 75. 5 17 1967 57. 8 36 1986 64. 3 54 2004 76. 6 18 1968 58. 2 37 1987 65. 2 55 2005 77. 0 19 1969 58. 9 Here we may see how year after year American women were fighting and wining cent by cent nowadays amount of their salary. There are also periods when they were losing positions but on the whole we see gradual percentage growing from 63. 9% in 1951 to 77 in 2005 and the struggle continues. What do women do now? First of all more and more women enter colleges and universities and work within the chosen profession. Women have the opportunity to act participating in operations of nongovernmental organizations as Fund of businesswomen and women-professionals, American association of businesswomen, American association of women with university education, National association of working women ect. Activity of women from nongovernmental organizations is diverse. Some of them collect money for promotion of more women in government. Others like members of American association of businesswomen offer to create unions for experience exchange and improving of professional skills for women who dream about successful career. Many of these organizations try to influence the US government in order to pass laws oriented to support the campaign against women’s discrimination. Some of them like National women’s organization conduct national protest actions drawing attention to the most vexed women’s problems. More and more men and women get involved in movement for gender equality, send e-mails to the members of Congress or contribute money to nongovernmental organizations, because they want their daughters to have more opportunities of choice. Women in national policy. Quantity of women represented in national policy grows but that is still not equality. In the year 2004, for example, women occupied 14 out of 100 seats in the US Senate, 59 out of 425 seats in the House of Representatives (the number of women in legislative body of the US is more than 22. 4%), 2 out of 9 seats in Supreme Court, 3 out of 15 seats in the Presidential Executive Office but there was no woman in the Cabinet. The example of nongovernmental organization working in order to increase the number of women in the US government is the Emily’s List, famous for having collect money for election to the US Senate of 6 women – which is still remains a record. Women also write letters to the elected representatives, expressing their opinion on topical issues, aggressively intervene in local centers of republican and democrat supporters all over the country, assist to many nongovernmental women’s organizations and take part in mass political actions. One of the mass action, oriented to gain gender equality is the program â€Å"Take Our Daughters to Work†. It was started about 10 years ago in order to show to the next generation of American women the importance of education, professional women’s abilities and to organize forum for girls. Companies permitted to the employees to bring their daughters to work at one day so that they could see the professional life of the parents. Now this day received a name â€Å"Take Our Daughters and Sons to Work Day†. Women’s rights movement which was so active in 60s and 70s provided millions of American women with the access to education, opportunity of career development, economical independence and strengthened their influence in political sphere. Nowadays US women are able to achieve much more and have more opportunities to choose than 40 years ago. Major part of American women feels their responsibility to create equal society for their children. To have equal rights for American women doesn’t mean to be less feminine or less caring for their children. This is something much deeper and more global, that means they should be treated as humans whose ideas are to be taken seriously, who have the opportunity to show their power and who are respected.

Charles Darwin Essays - Charles Darwin, Fellows Of The Royal Society

Charles Darwin Essays - Charles Darwin, Fellows Of The Royal Society Charles Darwin In 1859 when Charles Darwin published his book "The Origin of Species", it caused much controversy between the scientific and religious worlds. It caused many people to question their belief in the teaching of the Bible. The strongly held belief that the Bible was the literal truth clashed with the Darwin theory. Some people rejected and scorned Darwin while others tried to reevaluate their beliefs. Darwin theorized that species evolved from other species. The belief that God directly created man seemed unlikely to mix with Darwin's theory. Charles Darwin was born in Shrewsbury, England February 12, 1809. He had his preliminary schooling at Shrewsbury. He was then sent in 1825 to the University of Edinburgh where he entered a distinguished program for medicine. He did not like the program. From 1828 to 1831 he transferred to Cambridge to prepare for the ministry. Sciences were not included in University studies so he had no training in that area. Personal contacts with scientists gave him an informal science education. After Cambridge he became a naturalist on a government sponsored map making trip. Darwin collected data and specimens during this 5 year trip. It was during the trip that he also developed the first ideas about species evolving. After the trip he married and moved to Down, England where he lived the rest of his life. Darwin did research and corresponded his home. He had gained respect in the field of Natural Science from his research made during his 5 year trip. During that trip he gathered evidence that the species was mutable. As a student he had accepted fundamentalist beliefs. As time passed he was deeply impressed by Charles Lyell's theory that natural change occurred gradually in species. From his studies Darwin developed his Natural Selection Theory, which he announced in 1858. In 1859 his book "The Origin of the Species by Natural Selection", was published. The book advanced the theory and caused controversy. He wrote several other books during his lifetime but none was as significant as "Origin of the Species". Darwin died after many years of chronic illness in his home in Down, England on April 19, 1882. The theory of evolution is not contradicted by the Catholic Church today. The Church does not look at the Bible as literal truth. The Church encourages the study of science. In response to the controversy caused by Darwinism and questions about the Bible Pope Leo the XII started a commission to apply new methods of archaeology and linguistics to biblical study. This study which went on for many years now helps the Church to understand and accept how evolution can be a scientific fact and God can still have created man. The theory of evolution is scientific, although there is still debate about the theory, a religious belief does not have to be the deciding factor for a Catholic. The Church encourages Catholics to study and examine scientific possibilities without fear of contradicting their faith. As a Catholic and a student I can see the importance of Darwin's studies in my life. Darwin's theory encouraged a great deal of biological research. This research was meant to prove or disprove his theory. In the end much of the research furthered our knowledge of biology. This theory explained that species well adapted to their particular living space developed from an accumulation of adaptations. The science of Genetics which is so important today was able to explain these adaptations. I also understand that change had to occur in the way the church looked at creation for this growth in knowledge to be accepted. God did not have to be rejected because of a change in our thought about creation. I understand that God can lead us to intellectual growth that will help us. We must remember where the knowledge comes from and look for His guidance. Charles Darwin's curiosity and research about the world around him helped him to develop his theory